Interview with a Nanotech Expert

Why do I love the dystopian genre so much? Because it’s when human misery is at it’s worse that we are inspired to do something to about it. My interest in reading and writing dystopian literature isn’t focused on sensationalizing human suffering; it’s about alleviating it and improving the human condition. In literature, it’s only when things are really bad that we can make the good shine brighter. It’s one way we can make heroes. But once the hero is made, the suffering ended, how does the dystopic world begin to mend itself? When I began writing Sunset Rising, I knew I wanted to head in the direction of nanotechnology.

To put it in a frame of reference, the current prediction for mankind doesn’t look good. In 1972, the Club of Rome was formed to conceptualize a model of the impact our ever-increasing population will have on earth’s limited resources. The result of that study, with dire predictions for the future of mankind, was published in 1972, titled The Limits to Growth. K. Eric Drexler was strongly by The Limits to Growth when he embarked on a scientific journey that would lead him to become one of the pioneers of molecular nanotechnology (MNT). His envisioned molecular assembler (think nanofactories!) helped to popularize MNT among his peers, as well as sparked the imagination of the sci-fi world with his description of “gray-goo” if these self-replicating molecules ever got out of control (think Terminator 2!). But how can nanotechnology help save our earth?

Today I’m very pleased to host Dr. Adam Bergren, Research Officer, at the National Institute of Nanotechnology (NINT) in Alberta, Canada. Dr. Bergren very generously donated his time and advice to me when I reached out to him last year for guidance on nanotechnology when writing, Worlds Collide. Through emails and telephone conversations, he explained the science behind nanotech and why scientists are only limited by their imagination when it comes to developing this technology.

Susan: Thank you so much for taking the time out to talk to us, Dr. Bergren. You’ve been an amazing source of information about nanotech for me, and I have been truly blown away by how far this science has progressed. To start off our discussion, can I ask you to tell us exactly what nanotechnology is?

Dr. Bergren: Hello Susan, and thanks for inviting this discussion! I always love to talk about science! In terms of what nanotechnology is, I’ll start with, the “nano” in nanotechnology: it represents the length unit of the nanometer.

One nanometer is 1 billionth of a meter, which is equal to the length of some small molecules. For reference, the size of the single atoms that make up the periodic table range from 0.05 nm to 0.43 nm. The graphic below compares the nanoscale to some other length scales that we commonly experience or hear about.

Single atoms are smaller than the “nanoscale” involved with nanotechnology, and single atoms, while highly interesting, are not nanotechnology by themselves. It is when the nanoscale is approached in a material by assembling atoms into molecules or clusters that a higher function starts to emerge. Once dozens or hundreds of atoms are assembled into higher-order structures (i.e., nanoparticles, quantum dots, molecules, etc.), these nanomaterials often have properties that depend on the details of the structure, including size. In contrast, bulk materials (that are much larger than the nanoscale) have properties that are independent of size. Let me give you my favourite example from nature: DNA. The DNA that is within all of us is a nanoscale molecular structure that programs for all of the protein structures that make up everything in our bodies. This is achieved not from the properties of the atoms in the DNA, but by the way those atoms are arranged, through chemical bonding. This gives the DNA molecule a complex shape (it is a nanostructure!) that forms the basis for the amazing complexity of all of the living things we see. So DNA is nature’s nanotechnology!

Another example involves nanoparticles—clusters of (usually) metal atoms in nanoscale particles. A commonly used nanoparticle is derived from gold. We encounter gold in jewelry and as coatings on many electronic items (a lot of earbuds have gold-coated plugs), and a common property of (pure) gold is its yellow colour. When gold is cut in half, it maintains its yellow colour, and this is true as long as you don’t approach the nanoscale. However, when gold is formed into particles with sizes of less than 100 nm, the physical processes that control its colour change, and these processes are dependent on the exact size of the nanoparticle. Below is a photograph that shows how the scattering of light from gold nanoparticles with different sizes (all in the nanoscale) change the colour that we see.

This example illustrates the size-dependent regime of nanotechnology—we now have a property that can be controlled by nanostructuring the material. It creates a wide range of potentially new technological applications that are not available from only relying on bulk materials. Further, these nanoscale properties extend to many different systems and scientific fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, and materials science.

Using the information above as context, nanotechnology can be broadly defined as:
The study of materials, processes, and other phenomenon where at least one dimension of what is under study is <~100 nm, and the application of nanoscale properties in technology.

The example above of gold nanoparticles is a good one to illustrate this broad definition—the nanoscale size and shape of gold clusters has been studied in order to understand the factors that control the colour of nanoparticle solutions. In addition, these properties have been exploited in order to develop sensing schemes (e.g., where a colour change indicates the presence of a particular chemical). The best example I know of here is that gold nanoparticles have been used in some types of home pregnancy tests. In this case, a gold nanoparticle is chemically modified at its surface so that it will bind with (i.e., stick to) a particular pregnancy hormone. In the event that binding occurs, a particular colour is observed, while a lack of binding results in a different colour. Other properties of gold nanoparticles have also been studied and applied in different areas, such as chemical reactions that take place on the surface of the particle.

So we see that nanotechnology involves studying small things in order to achieve technological advances that are not possible with bulk-sized things. That’s probably as briefly as I can state it.

Susan: Wow, there are so many different ways we can apply this technology. What is your area of expertise?

Dr. Bergren: I have a BS in Chemistry and a PhD in Analytical Chemistry. However, I don’t like to pigeon-hole myself so narrowly.

My specific area of expertise is in nanoelectronics. One of the reasons I like nanotechnology and nanoelectronics is that it involves using concepts from many different areas (as illustrated above in the Alternate Definition of nanotechnology; nanoelectronics uses concepts from chemistry, physics, materials science, and even biology, and also uses concepts from sub-disciplines within each larger field, including electronics, measurement techniques, electrochemistry, charge transport physics, and so on).

So while I may have expertise in nanoelectronics, I really like to be able to learn something new every day!

Susan: What are some ways nanotechnology can alleviate human reliance on fossil fuels?

Dr. Bergren: It is generally accepted that solar energy, if it can be captured and stored in a cost-effective manner, holds the most promise to alleviate our reliance on fossil fuels. While there are other technologies that play an important role, the sheer amount of energy that is available from the sun’s radiant energy make it the most likely long-term solution. As an example, the amount of sunlight that reaches the earth’s surface in 90 minutes contains enough energy to supply the world’s energy demands for one year [see http://www.sandia.gov/~jytsao/Solar%20FAQs.pdf and http://www.powerfromthesun.net/Book/chapter02/chapter02.html]

Nanotechnology, as an emerging technological application space, holds tremendous potential to solve many of the challenges present in reaching goals in both the capture and storage of solar energy. In particular, solar cells are judged based on the efficiency with which they capture sun light and convert it into electricity. Nanotechnologies may help to fine-tune the structure of solar cells in order to improve the conversion process. In addition, currently available solar cells can provide enough energy for many applications, but employing nanotechnology solutions may decrease the costs associated with producing solar cells. For example, using nanoengineered plastics that capture the sun’s energy (like the one in the picture below) with good efficiency might make the solar cell manufacturing process cheaper (because plastics are cheap themselves, and also are convenient for mass production using methods such as printing or roll-to-roll coating), or using nanostructured materials to improve existing storage devices (e.g., batteries) or even create entirely new storage mechanisms. Finally, nanotechnology can hold keys to optimizing the absorption of light by solar cells, whatever their structure.

(For more detailed information, check out Professor David Cahen, an expert on global energy.)

Susan: What is, in your opinion, the most important nanotech invention to date?

Dr. Bergren: This is a great question! There are so many things out there that can qualify as nanotech, even some very old things like stained glass. The colour of traditional stained glass was imbued by metal nanoparticles, where the specific metal identity and the size of the particles were controlled by highly skilled artisans in order to control the colour. However, probably the most important nanotechnology that is currently being used on a daily basis is in computer processors.

Due to a long history in electronics of shrinking device sizes leading to improved performance, the industry quietly transitioned into the nano size regime in the early 2000s, when the processor chips started to contain devices with certain features that are less than 100 nm. In this case, the nano aspect of the technology enabled the continued improvement of electronic device performance to the point where nanotechnology is even being carried around by millions of people (many of the latest smart phones have nano processors!)!

All this is to say that nanotechnology is not new, nor is it a technology that is 20 years away from real-world applications. Nanotech is, however, increasingly able to contribute to solutions for a large number of problems, and it is my hope that it continues to do so, and can be implemented in a responsible manner.

Susan: Where do you see nanotechnology in thirty years from now?

Dr. Bergren: As always, the future is unpredictable, which is why it is great fun to speculate about it! Since nanotechnology is not new, and is already in use now, I can foresee further applications of nano in many areas. In particular, I am hopeful that nanotechnology can be a part of the solution to some of the more difficult challenges we face, such as the energy challenge discussed above. I predict a day when nano-enabled optical materials channel the sun’s light into highly efficient nanostructured solar collecting materials, and the electrical energy harvested stored by highly efficiency nano-engineered batteries.

Turning close to my own area, I eagerly anticipate the day when molecular electronics will be in the marketplace, and that day should be very soon, as demonstrated here:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9EJIihaLV9g

In addition to the aesthetic musical functions of the molecular junction discussed in the videos, it may be the case that molecular electronic devices can find many other roles to play in future electronics. In thirty years, we could have fully molecular circuits that have all sorts of functions that are not possible now. A few examples might be phone-like electronic devices with fully interactive chemical sensing and diagnostics (like a Star Trek tricorder!), computers with structures placed atom-by-atom in order to operate using quantum mechanical logic, and even windows with embedded electronics that can respond to the environment or just create artistic designs.

To delve a bit further, and of course keeping everything highly speculative, if we can integrate the biological science into molecular and/or nanoelectronics, it might be possible to use the organic molecules in electronic circuitry in a fashion that is integrated with neural-like networks. This could make electronic computing devices that behave like a brain, enabling higher functioning than is possible using conventional electronics.

Certainly in terms of science fiction, visioning exercises such as those above have a way of creating an inherent tension- they lead us to imagine a world where we can create all sorts of things that can aide both great or villainous ends. To put it another way, the responsible deployment of nanotechnologies is always, and must always be, a primary goal of science (the non-fiction type). But such a noble goal cannot be achieved in isolation. Rather, the question of what we should do within the realm of what we can do must be answered through larger discussions with society and the citizens that are served by scientific progress.

To that end, our boundless imagination, manifested through science fiction, can keep us ahead of the curve- and that can be useful inspiration and serve to inform our responsibilities.

Susan: Thank you so much, Dr. Bergren, for sharing all that information with us!! I really get the sense that a door to a whole new world was opened when the nanoscale was discovered. From the development of nanofactories to molecular electronics, it sounds like scientists are only limited by their imagination and, as Richard Smalley puts it, “fat fingers.” I personally believe the application of nanotechnology can not only solve the current energy challenge, but also change the way we consume and ultimately waste resources. Hopefully I’ll see it my lifetime.

Dr. Bergren: Thank you, Susan, for hosting this discussion! As I said earlier, I always like to talk about science! I agree with the sentiment that we are only limited by our imagination, but scientists also need strong support from the public! If you are interested in science, nanotechnology, or just looking eagerly ahead for solutions to some of the challenges we will face, your voice can make a difference!

 

Adam Johan Bergren is a Research Officer at the National Institute for Nanotechnology in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, where he serves as the Program Coordinator for the Hybrid Nanoscale Electronics Program.

He received a PhD in Analytical Chemistry from Iowa State University in 2006, and a BS in Chemistry from Southwest Minnesota State University in 2001. His research interests include molecular electronics, spectroscopy, nanoscale charge transport, and the interfacial energetics that control nanoscale molecule-based electronic device behaviour. In addition, he has recently integrated molecular electronic devices into analog circuitry to create the first practical and potentially commercial application of molecular electronics- of all places, in a guitar distortion effects pedal!

If you would like to get in touch with Dr. Bergren, his email is adam.bergren@nrc.ca.

Disclaimer: Any Views or Opinions Expressed are the personal views of Adam Bergren, and do not necessarily reflect those of NRC, the UofA, the Government of Canada, or the Government of Alberta.